Jewish American Literature Essay

Jewish American Literature holds an essential place in the literary history of the United States. It encompasses traditions of writing in English, primarily, as well as in other languages, the most important of which has been Yiddish. While critics and authors generally acknowledge the notion of a distinctive corpus and practice of writing about Jewishness in America, many writers resist being pigeonholed as ‘Jewish voices’. Also, many nominally Jewish writers cannot be considered representative of Jewish American literature, one example being Isaac Asimov. Beginning with the memoirs and petitions composed by the Sephardic immigrants who arrived in America during the mid 17th century, Jewish American writing grew over the subsequent centuries to flourish in other genres as well, including fiction, poetry, and drama. The first notable voice in Jewish- American literature was Emma Lazarus whose poem ‘The New Colossus’ on the Statue of Liberty became the great hymnal of American immigration. Gertrude Stein became one of the most influential prose-stylists of the early 20th century. The early twentieth century saw the appearance of two pioneering American Jewish novels: Abraham Cahan’s ‘The Rise of David Levinsky’ and Henry Roth’s ‘Call it Sleep’. It reached some of its most mature expression in the 20th century ‘Jewish American novels’ by Saul Bellow, J. D. Salinger, Norman Mailer, Bernard Malamud, Chaim Potok, and Philip Roth. Their work explored the conflicting pulls between secular society and Jewish tradition which were acutely felt by the immigrants who passed through Ellis Island and by their children and grandchildren. More recent authors like Nicole Krauss, Paul Auster, Michael Chabon, Jonathan Safran Foer andArt Spiegelman have continued to examine dilemmas of identity in their work, turning their attention especially to the Holocaust and the trends of both ongoing assimilation and cultural rediscovery exhibited by younger generations of American Jews. Arguably the most influential of all American- Jewish novels was Leon Uris’ ‘Exodus’. Its story of the struggle to create the modern state of Israel translated into Russian became the inspiration for hundreds of thousands of Russian immigrants to Israel. Modern Jewish American novels often contain (a few or many) Jewish characters and address issues and themes of importance to Jewish American society such as assimilation, Zionism/Israel, and Anti-Semitism, along with the recent phenomenon known as â€Å"New Anti-Semitism. † Two Jewish- American writers have won the Nobel Prize, Isaac Bashevis Singer and Saul Bellow. Bernard Malamud is considered one of the most prominent figures in Jewish –American literature. BERNARD MALAMUD ( 1914-1986). Malamud’s stories and novels, in which reality and fantasy are frequently interfaced have been compared to parables, myths and analogies and often illustrate the importance of moral obligation. Although he draws upon his Jewish heritage to address the themes of sins, suffering, and redemption, Malamud emphasizes human contact and compassion over orthodox religious dogma. Malamud’s characters, while often awkward and isolated from society, evoke both pity and humor through their attempts at survival and salvation. Sheldon J. Hershinow observed: â€Å"Out of the everyday defeats and indignities of ordinary people, Malamud creates beautiful parables that capture the joy as well as the pain of life; he expresses the dignity of the human spirit searching for freedom and moral growth in the face for hardship, injustice, and the existential anguish of life. BIOGRAPHY Malamud was born on April 28, 1914, in Brooklyn, New York, to Russian Jewish immigrants. His parents, whom he described as â€Å"gentle, honest, kindly people,† were not highly educated and knew very little about literature of the arts: â€Å"There were no books in the house, no records, music, pictures on the wall. † Malamud attended high school in Brooklyn and received his bachelor’s degree from the City College of New York in 1936. After graduation, he worked in a factory and as a clerk at the central bureau in Washington, D. C. Although he wrote in his spare time, Malamud did not begin writing seriously until the advent of the Second World War and the subsequent horrors of the Holocausts. He questioned his religious identity and started reading about Jewish tradition and history . He explained: â€Å"I was concerned with what Jews stood for, with their getting down to the bare  bones of things. I was concerned with their ethnically –how Jews felt for they had to live order to go on living. † In 1949, he began teaching at Oregan State University; he left this post in 1961 to teach creative writing at Bennington College in Vermont. He remained there until shortly before his death in 1986. Starting in 1949, Malamud taught four sections of freshman composition each semester at Oregon State University (OSU), an experience fictionalized in his 1961 novel ‘A New Life’. Because he lacked the Ph. D., he was not allowed to teach literature courses, and for a number of years his rank was that of instructor. In those days, OSU, a land grant university, placed little emphasis on the teaching of humanities or the writing of fiction. While at OSU, he devoted 3 days out of every week to his writing, and gradually emerged as a major American author. In 1961, he left OSU to teach creative writing at Bennington College, a position he held until retirement. In 1967, he was made a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. In 1942, Malamud met Ann De Chiara (November 1, 1917 – March 20, 2007), an Italian-American Roman Catholic, and a 1939 Cornell University graduate. They married on November 6, 1945, despite the opposition of their respective parents. Ann typed his manuscripts and reviewed his writing. Ann and Bernard had two children, Paul (b. 1947) and Janna (b. 1952). Janna Malamud Smith is the author of a memoir about her father, titled My Father is a Book. Malamud died in Manhattan in 1986, at the age of 71. WORKS OF MALAMUD Malamud’s first novel, ‘The Natural’ (1952 ) ,is considered one of his most symbolic works . While the novel ostensibly traces the life of Roy Hobbs, an American baseball player , the work has underlying mythic elements and explores such themes as initiation and isolation. For instance, some reviewers cited evidence of the Arthurian legend of the Holy Grail; others applied T. S. Eliot’s ‘wasteland’ myth in their analyses ‘The Natural’ also foreshadows what would become Malamud’s predominant narrative focus: a suffering protagonist struggling to reconcile moral dilemmas, to act according to what is right, and to accept the complexities and hardships of existence. Malamud‘s second novel, ‘The Assistant’ (1957), portrays the life of Morris Bober, a Jewish immigrant who owns a grocery store in Brooklyn. Although he is struggling to survive financially, Bober hires a cynical anti-semitic youth, Frank Aloine after learning that the man is homeless and on the verge of starvation. Through this contact Frank learns to find grace and dignity in his own identity. Described as naturalistic fable, this novel affirms the redemptive value of maintaining faith in the goodness of the human soul. Malamud’s first collection of short stories, ‘The Magic Barrel’, (1958) was awarded the National Book award in 1959. Like ‘The Assistant’, most of the stories in this collection depict the search for hope and meaning within the grim entrapment of poor urban settings and were influenced by Yiddish folktales and Hasidic traditions. Many of Malamud’s best known short stories, including ‘The Last Mohican’, ‘Angel Levine’, and ‘Idiots First’, were republished in ‘The Stories of Bernard Malamud’ in 1983. ‘A New Life’ (1961), considered one of Malamud’s most true-to-life novels, is based in part on Malamud’s teaching career at Oregon State University. This work focuses on an ex-alcoholic Jew from New York City who becomes a professor at a college in the Pacific Northwest. It examines the main character’s search for self-respect, while poking fun at life at a learning institution. Malamud’s next novel, ‘The Fixer’ (1966), is one of his most powerful works. The winner of both the Pulitzer Prize and the National Book Award, this book is based on the historical account of Mendel Beiliss, a Russian Jew who was accused of murdering a Christian child. With ‘The Tenants’ (1971), Malamud returns to a New York City setting in a contrast between two writers—one Jewish and the other African American—struggling to survive in an urban ghetto. Malamud further addresses the nature of literature and the role of the artist in ‘Dublin’s Lives’ (1979). In this work, the protagonist, William Dublin, attempts to create a sense of worth for himself, both as a man and as a writer. Malamud’s last finished novel, ‘God’s Grace’ (1982), studies both the original Holocaust and a new, imagined Holocaust of the future. The novel is a wild, at times brilliant, at times confusing, description of a flood similar to that in the Bible story of Noah’s ark. Malamud continued to place stories in top American magazines. Mervyn Rothstein reported in the New York Times that Malamud said at the end of his life, â€Å"With me, its story, story, story. † In Malamud’s next-to-last collection, ‘Rembrandt’s Hat’, only one story, ‘The Silver Crown’, deals with Jewish themes. Malamud is also renowned for his short stories, often oblique allegories set in a dreamlike urban ghetto of immigrant Jews. Of Malamud the short story writer, Flannery O’Connor wrote: â€Å"I have discovered a short-story writer who is better than any of them, including myself. † He published his first stories in 1943, ‘Benefit Performance’ in Threshold and ‘The Place Is Different Now’ in American Preface. In the early 1950s, his stories began appearing in Harper’s Bazaar, Partisan Review, and Commentary. ‘The Magic Barrel’ was his first published collection of short stories (1958) and his first winner of his first National Book Award for Fiction. Most of the stories depict the search for hope and meaning within the bleak enclosures of poor urban settings. The title story focuses on the unlikely relationship of Leo Finkle, an unmarried rabbinical student, and Pinye Salzman, a colorful marriage broker. Finkle has spent most of life with his nose buried in books and therefore isn’t well-educated in life itself. However, Finkle has a greater interest – the art of romance. He engages the services of Salzman, who shows Finkle a number of potential brides from his â€Å"magic barrel† but with each picture Finkle grows more uninterested. After Salzman convinces him to meet Lily Hirschorn, Finkle realizes his life is truly empty and lacking the passion to love God or humanity. When Finkle discovers a picture of Salzman’s daughter and sees her suffering, he sets out on a new mission to save her. Other well-known stories included in the collection are: ‘The Last Mohican’, ‘Angel Levine’, ‘Idiots First’, and ‘The Mourners’. This last story focuses on Kessler, the defiant old man in need of â€Å"social security† and Gruber, the belligerent landlord who doesn’t want Kessler in the tenement anymore. Malamud’s fiction touches lightly upon mythic elements and explores themes like isolation, class, and the conflict between bourgeois and artistic values. His prose, like his settings, is an artful pastiche of Yiddish-English locutions, punctuated by sudden lyricism. Writing in the second half of the twentieth century, Malamud was well aware of the social problems of his day: rootlessness, infidelity, abuse, divorce, and more. But he also depicted love as redemptive and sacrifice as uplifting. In his writings, success often depends on cooperation between antagonists. For example, in The Mourners landlord and tenant learn from each other’s anguish. In ‘The Magic Barrel’, the matchmaker worries about his â€Å"fallen† daughter, while the daughter and the rabbinic student are drawn together by their need for love and salvation. Malamud’s third story ‘Rembrandt’s Hat’ collection is noteworthy for its consistently pessimistic tone and theme of failed communication in stories such as ‘My Son the Murderer’, ‘The Silver Crown’, and ‘The Letter’. ‘The volume The People’, and ‘Uncollected Stories’ contains an unfinished novel about a Russian Jewish peddler in the American West who becomes a marshal and is kidnapped by Indians. It also includes fourteen stories written between 1943 and 1985. LIST OF OTHER NOTABLE JEWISH AMERICAN WRITERS †¢ Aimee Bender — novelist and short story writer, known for her often fantastic and surreal plots and characters †¢ Saul Bellow, novelist that won the Pulitzer Prize, the Nobel Prize for Literature, and the National Medal of Arts †¢ Bernard Cooper, novelist, short story writer †¢ E. L. Doctorow, novelist †¢ Richard Ellmann, literary critic, won National Book Award for Nonfiction †¢ Barthold Fles, literary agent and non-fiction writer †¢ Emma Goldman, anarchist writer †¢ Joseph Heller, author of Catch-22 †¢ Christopher Hitchens, literary critic and political activist †¢ Irving Howe, literary critic †¢ Roger Kahn. â€Å"The Boys of Summer† 1972 †¢ Jerzy Kosinski, author of The Painted Bird †¢ Emma Lazarus, poet and novelist †¢ Fran Lebowitz, author, known for her sardonic social commentary on American life through her New York sensibilities †¢ Seymour Martin Lipset, political sociologist. †¢ Reggie Nadelson, novelist known particularly for her mystery works †¢ Mark Obama Ndesandjo, author, half-brother of President Barack Obama †¢ Cynthia Ozick, short story writer, novelist, and essayist †¢ Jodi Picoult, novelist †¢ Ayn Rand, novelist and founder of Objectivism †¢ Lea Bayers Rapp, non-fiction and children’s fiction writer †¢ Philip Roth, known for autobiographical fiction that explored Jewish and American identity. †¢ Norman Rosten, novelist †¢ J. D. Salinger, author of The Catcher in the Rye †¢ Gary Shteyngart (born 1972) Russian-born writer †¢ Isaac Bashevis Singer, leading figure in Yiddish literature, won Nobel Prize †¢ George Steiner (born 1929) literary critic †¢ Daniel Stern, novelist] †¢ Leopold Tyrmand, writer †¢ Judith Viorst (born 1932) author, known for her children’s literature †¢ Elie Wiesel, Holocaust survivor and author of 57 books CONCLUSION The situation and the position of the Jewish-American writer have always been different from that of the other ethnicities in America and still remain so until today. One difference is highlighted by a comparison with the African-American writers. The â€Å"marginal† position of black authors has disappeared on the book market in the United States, but the themes of alienation and anger will not vanish as readily from their works. Instead of integration into the Literary and artistic mainstream, black writers and artists wanted, especially since the Black Arts Movement of the 1960s, to arrive at their â€Å"own† forms of literary expression which would have direct relevance for their lives. They wished to answer the question of their relationship to white mainstream culture by implementing a multicultural strategy: their literature is not that of assimilation, but in many ways that of establishing difference, separatism, and cultural resistance. While with the African-American writers there is no sense of the success or even desirability of social and cultural integration into the predominantly white mainstream of American society, many Jewish-American authors felt it as necessary and desirable, and as a result even managed to acquire it. Indeed, a great number of contemporary Jewish-American writers such as Norman Mailer, Saul Bellow, Joseph Heller, Bernard Malamud, Arthur Miller, Philip Roth and others have had literary success. The language employed by these writers is standard American English, they are socially accepted, and their works are read by a wide Jewish and non-Jewish audience. For this reason it is widely considered that their texts form part of a recognized literary canon, and belong to the American literary â€Å"center† or â€Å"mainstream,† as far as this may still be defined today. As much as we agreed to this idea we cannot ignore several facts which underline the necessity to view Jewish American literary productions as shaped by strong ethnic forces, and Jewish American literature as both belonging to and standing out in the multicultural American landscape. BIBLOGRAPHY Books Sanford, Sternlicht Masterpieces of Jewish American Literature Cristina, Nilsson Jewish American Literature: Bernard Malamud, Philip Roth and Cynthia Ozick Websites http://en. wikipedia. org http://www. swiftpapers. com http:// Top of Form.

Better Business Bureau Essay

In the business world there must be certain checks and balances in place that ensure that the open marketplace maintains its integrity. One of these mechanisms that directly relate to my chosen field of business is a nonprofit organization called the Better Business Bureau. The Better Business Bureau was founded in 1912 and consists of over one-hundred and twenty independently incorporated local organizations throughout the United States and Canada. The purpose of this organization is to ensure that the marketplace remains ethical so that consumers and sellers of consumer goods and services can establish trust. The Better Business Bureau collects data on a particular business’s reliability, alerts the buying public to potential fraud, provides invaluable insight into a business’s ethical business practices, and acts as arbitrators between consumers and business disputes. Companies that meet and maintain the Better Business Bureau’s ethical standards may be invited to obtain membership with the organization. Becoming a member of the Better Business Bureau has the benefit of having an additional selling point to advertise to potential consumers because the Better Business Bureau is revered for honesty and trustworthiness. A high rating from the Better Business Bureau could potentially be the force needed to induce a consumer to purchase your products or services. Companies become members with the Better Business Bureau because the marketplace has more potential to flourish if the consumers trust the businesses that want to serve them. Also, alignment with the Better Business Bureau has the benefit of demonstrating to consumers a business’s commitment to a conducting business in a trustworthy marketplace. Third, members of the Better Business Bureau have the opportunity to network with those in industries similar to their own and attract people from all over the United States. Finally, members get absolute access to any and all of this organization’s services and information. Members get all of the latest news and information about the Better Business Bureau as well as industry specific insider information. As a potential marketer, it would be imperative for someone to recommend that businesses seek to obtain Better Business Bureau membership status.

Software Developers, Market Researchers and Financial Analysts Are Our Future

General idea of success in the past was choosing a future vocation carefully, going to a prestigious college, getting a stable job and then sticking to it for the majority of your life, relentlessly climbing up the career ladder and, probably, switching to a larger company a couple of times in the process. But we live in the information age – however trite this remark may sound by now, it is still true. This means that situation in the job market may change considerably in just a couple of years, and the world you meet graduating from college may be quite different from what the world was like when you applied for admission. This, in the long run, means that your current college degree shouldn’t define what you will do for the rest of your life. If you see a better venture, don’t be afraid to retrain and move over there. It is not unheard-of for social science grads to leap to accounting or something else. So, what is our future looking like right now, in terms of jobs? A well-respected tool to help you out here is the Hot Careers Report by University of California, San Diego Extension. As it has been for quite a while, software developers, computer network architects and marketing analysts head the list of the hottest jobs. And it is likely that this tendency is going to remain strong. After all, every year brings us new breakthroughs in the areas of big data, cloud computing, mobile devices and so on. The mobile market alone simply exploded over the last few years, creating enormous demand for new applications and, therefore, exceptional demand for new professionals in the area. However, digital world isn’t the only hot thing right now. Surprisingly for some (and all too expectedly for others) today we see a noticeable upsurge in demand for such professions as financial analysts and advisors, elementary school teachers, nurses, physical therapists, accountants, auditors and so on. The reason for it is all too simple. We have recently reached the stage at which massive population of Baby Boomers started to go into retirement. This, on the one hand, leads to decrease in pensions and, on the other hand, to growing demand in specialists who would help aging people prepare to their retirements and those already retired manage their finances and affairs in general. They demand healthcare as well, hence the demand for nurses and physical therapists. In addition to that, numerous representatives of some professions, like elementary school teachers, are retiring as well, which leads to growing demand for their services that isn’t going to be rectified for some years. In other words, professions dealing with all things digital are still leading the way – the area keeps expanding and demands more and more professionals. But it doesn’t mean that other walks of life are to be ignored – there are numerous ways of building excellent careers for those who are not inclined to this kind of work.

Fracking Should Not Be Banned - 1526 Words

Fracking is a pressurized, chemically treated mixture of water and sand used to release and extract natural gas and petroleum from shale rock. The process involves a well drilled vertically to the desired depth, then turns ninety degrees and continues horizontally for thousands of feet into the shale believed to contain the trapped natural gas. A mix of water, sand, and various chemicals are pumped into the well at high pressure in order to create fissures in the shale through which the gas can escape. Natural gas escapes through the fissures and is drawn back up the well to the surface, where it is processed, refined, and shipped to market. Flowback returns to the surface after the fracking process is completed (Fracking: The Process 1). Environmentalist want the technique of fracking banned because it plays a part in global warming, affects our water, and causes human health problems. If fracking cannot be banned because of its necessity, then it should be made safe and eco-friendl y. There are many articles, studies being done, and organizations fighting for what they think is right. Two organizations involved in fracking are the American Gas Association (AGA) and FracDallas. AGA is a natural gas utility association supporting fracking, its priority is to use natural gas for transportation in order to increase the demand for it. FracDallas â€Å"does not oppose gas well drilling† it â€Å"opposes unsafe, untested and unproven gas well drilling in densely populated urban areas†Show MoreRelatedFracking Should Not Be Banned1270 Words   |  6 Pagesthroughout the state, hydraulic fracturing has seen a boom in utilization. However, this has been largely detrimental for the state. Fracking should not be allowed in Oklahoma because of its environmental implications, its effect on Oklahoma’s future, and its impact on the people of Oklahoma. Fracking has become a massive business in Oklahoma. The idea behind fracking was first invented in the late nineteenth century, with explosives put into the ground in place of water (Manfreda). The modern formRead MoreFracking Is A Dangerous Process That Should Be Banned Immediately1328 Words   |  6 PagesHydraulic Fracturing (fracking) is the process of drilling into the ground and pumping sand, water, and fracking fluid at high pressures in order to extract natural shale gas that was previously unattainable. This process comes with environmental issues: the chemicals from the fracking fluid can contaminate nearby drinking water wells and harm the citizens of that area. Despite the fact that there have been several contaminated drinking water cases reported, there is little being done about thisRead MoreHydraulic Fracturing : Good Or Bad?1401 Words   |  6 Pagesknown as fracking. A gas company drilled five wells near French’s land, two of the gas wells were less than 4 ,000 feet away for her farmland. Chemicals from the wells leaked into French’s water system and caused all of those awful effects on the cows, French and her family, as well as her neighbors. Due to the detrimental impacts that fracking causes on humans and the environment, fracking should be illegal. So what is hydraulic fracturing? Hydraulic fracturing, also known as fracking, â€Å"is theRead MoreFracking : Fracking And Its Effects On The Environment1286 Words   |  6 Pagesreferred to as fracking, is a widespread practice in the United States. Fracking is a method used to extract oil and natural gas. Scientists and citizens report detrimental side effects of hydraulic drilling. New York and Vermont have banned fracking statewide. Maryland has set a two year moratorium on fracking, so that more research can be done to show the impacts of fracking on the environment. Nationwide, many other cities and counties have banned fracking as well. All states should look into findingRead MoreHydraulic Fracturing Is Risky And Dangerous For The Environment1153 Words   |  5 PagesHydraulic Fracturing Should be Banned written by the Food and Water Watch non-profit organization. The Article goes on to claim that new fracking methods, technologies, and chemicals to reach more and more r emote gas reserves carry a greater risk than that of gas drilling. The desperation of gas companies to find more natural gas pockets has led them to employ riskier methods to ensure they find what they want. Wastewater from the fracking carries a massive risk for the environment. â€Å"Fracking wastewater containsRead MoreFracking : How Fracking Effects People1222 Words   |  5 Pages How fracking effects people Hydraulic fracturing began in 1947 and still happening until now. People have used fracking to produce more than one million oil and natural gas wells since 1947. Currently fracking accounts for 50% of locally produced natural gas and 33% of local petroleum† (Engelder 274). It proved that fracking is valuable because people can get too much natural gas and petroleum from fracking. There are 2.5 million frac jobs that hadRead MoreFracking Is A Safe And Economical Source Of Clean Energy1146 Words   |  5 PagesDeb Herb Dr. Lazardeux POSC 211 30 November 2015 Fracking According to an article in The New York Times, hydraulic fracturing is best described as the technique used to drill down into the earth using a high pressure water mixture to fracture the rocks and extract the natural gas and oil. Approximately one million wells have been fracked since the 1940’s, most of these are vertical wells that drill into porous sandstone or limestone. New technology has allowed for horizontal drilling to captureRead MoreFracking Of The United States911 Words   |  4 Pages101 8 September, 2015 Fracking in The United States Fracking is a term that is used as a shorthand term referring to hydraulic fracturing. This is a type of drilling used for oil and natural gas within the Earth. Fracking has been used commercially for the last 65 years in the U.S... With the new technology advances in the field along with advanced hydraulic fracturing and horizontal drilling is responsible for the U.S. surging in the oil and gas production. Fracking is allowing the U.S. toRead MoreFracking And Its Effects On The Environment856 Words   |  4 PagesFracking is one the most recent and efficient methods to create energy. In order to obtain this controversial natural gas, new jobs are created in rural areas, and as expected, electric bills decreased. Furthermore, Fracking creates enormous amounts of gas at an inexpensive price making the production of any other form of energy practically obsolete. Although not all countries or states in the United States think alike, some of them dispute the claim that fracking negatively affects the environmentRead MoreTypes Of Wells Can Be Used For Drill Holes Deep Into The Earth1566 Words   |  7 Pagesthere are three types of oil and gas wells; horizontal, directional, and vertical. All three types of wells can be fracked. Horizontal drilling is normally used to drill holes deep into the earth, for the hydraulic fracturing process. Fracturing or â€Å"fracking† uses a high pressure water mixture that is injected deep into the ground through pipes to create fractures that release the oil and natural gas from the shale deposits. The gases are directed into wells that have been built for collection. The water

Freedom Of Expression Is Protected By Article 10 Of The...

1 INTRODUCTION ‘Any restraint on press freedom is a risk to freedom and democracy itself.’ Despite this there are many restraints the press face; when defaming a person, reporting from the Youth Court, reporting previous convictions if in contempt of court, inter alias. This paper will focus on the Leveson Inquiry and the controversy which led to the inquiry itself. In particular, it will evaluate the consequences to a democratic society by implementing the restrictions recommended by the Leveson Report, and the supposed disregard for public interest. 2 EUROPEAN CONVENTION ON HUMAN RIGHTS Freedom of expression is protected by Article 10 of the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR). Speech is inclusive of freedom of expression.†¦show more content†¦The Information Commission Office (ICO) has expressed that ‘â€Å"both privacy and freedom of expression are of special importance in a democratic society, and neither consideration automatically trumps the other.’ A conundrum arises when balancing the contradicting rights. The UK has a reputation for protecting individuals privacy, as seen in Douglas v Hello. On the contrary, there is also an ‘extraordinary protection’ afforded to freedom of expression in the UK, especially to the Press. There is now a well established test derived from Campbell, in which one must reasonably expect privacy. PRIVACY 3 THE LEVESON INQUIRY In 2011, Lord Justice Brian Leveson carried out a 16 month inquiry into the Culture, Practices and Ethics of the British Press, as ordered by Prime Minister David Cameron under the Inquiry Act 2005. This became widely known as ‘The Leveson Inquiry’. The inquiry was a result of the preceding phone hacking scandals from the News of the World, into both celebrities and victims such as Mollie Dowler. The inquiry, whilst being deeply intrusive into the businesses practices and attitudes of the press, highlighted the issue of newspapers breaching phone owners’ private lives, often not public figures. The phone hacking was an offence in itself under Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000 (RIPA), and journalists such as Clive Goodman were arrested and sentenced to

Pornography In The Media Essay Example For Students

Pornography In The Media Essay Pornography in the MediaPornography in the MediaIt started by way of messengers and scribes, evolved through the presentation of newspapers and radio, brought us together with television, and now serves us world-wide via the ever-popular Internet. It is the mass media, and even from the earliest days of its existence, it has contributed greatly in ways that both enlighten and enrich society, and ways that deteriorate and perplex it. It is not a surprise to learn, then, that the mass media is the most powerful source of information we have, and nothing else in todays world influences public perception quite as heavily. Unfortunately, however, most of what is broadcast or transmitted in the news today is with reference to the chaotic condition of our planet, or something else that society as a whole sees as detrimental or damaging. But the news on television is not the only type of media taking the criticism of society. Other forms of mass media, specifically movies and television prog rams containing pornography and violence have been heavily criticized. The underliningconcept to be debated here is that society is negatively influenced, specifically, by these images of pornography and the result is increased violence against women. This assumption, and it is indeed only an assumption, is completely fallacious, however, as no concrete and completely conclusive evidence has ever been formulated in support of the theory. The key premise here is that the mass media does not cause undesirable social behaviour and in actuality, the media people should not be dubbed as the bad guys. They simply use their power in the most constructive ways possible in order to promote their ratings and popularity. One way to do that is to concentrate on what sells: sex, violence and disaster. Having said this, why is it then, that many in society still believe otherwise; why do they continue to believe that pornography is evil and is a major cause for violence against women, specifically rape? There are many reasons for this misinterpretation and through the following few points, an attempt will be made to show that pornography has very little to almost no correlation with violence against women (of course nothing is absolute in society). In order to demonstrate this, it must be made evident that pornography is not evil and does not cause undesirable social behaviour by displaying nude women in sexually explicit circumstances. Thus, it is important to indicate that women are not treated only as sexual objects through the media. This is done in an attempt to quash any traces of evil in pornography. Subsequently, a second point, that some may consider to be completely bizarre, can be addressed; that pornography actually reduces the amount of violence against women. For thousands of years, sex itself has been considered evil and revolting. This is exactly why the concealment of the sex organs and teaching feelings of shame toward human sexuality is so common worldwide (Christensen 1990:4). These same feelings of shame are the chief reasons that sex is considered a personal and private matter. Contrary to the beliefs of many, the mass media did not create these settings; society creates this image. In some societies, women have no reservations with regard to living their entire lives completely naked, while in other societies, females cover themselves from head to toe, only revealing their eyes. The media has been bombarded with criticism, overwhelmingly from the female community, relative to the amount of sexually explicit material that is published in magazines and that appears on television and in the cinemas. A common argument against pornography is that the media portrays women as being nothing more than sexual playthings and objects to sati sfy male sexual desires. As before, the media once again, is not to be held responsible for creating this image; these views are products of society. It would be downright absurd to assume that women in this society are treated as sexual objects only because the media releases or broadcasts pornographic material. A magazine associated with make-up and skin care, for example, will quite obviously not be concentrating on much else. Such a magazine would not display pictures of women who mountain-climb or women who water-ski; only images of make-up and text referring to skin care would be relevant. Clearly, society does not consider women to be beings whos only purpose in life is to worry about make-up and skin care; but why are the complaints only directed towards pornographic media then? The answer to this question may be more complicated, however, what remains obvious is that the media does not portray women as only being able to fill male sexual desires. To say that pictures featur ing nudity, etc, are making objects out of women is foolish. One should consider females who pin-up posters of male rock stars or children who collecthockey or baseball cards. Society, however, does not say that objects are being made out of these rock stars and sports heroes; pictures of clothed people are no less objects than pictures of naked people. Many complaints are also made to the effect that pornography only offers a one-dimensional view to life; that women are seen as nymphomaniacs who are hysterically addicted to sex. It should be pointed out that events such as hockey games, boxing matches, horse races and operas all offer a one-dimensional view of life. One does not attend an opera hoping to see a horse race. The underlying problem here is that the above mentioned events are socially acceptable; media displaying pornography is not. It is also said that the media reduces women to a collection of body parts through pornography (Christensen 1990:74). But why then are their no complaints of advertisements in magazines displaying only ears, for example, or a nose, or feet? The reason is a simple one; society considers certain body parts to be shameful or disgusting and once again, the media can be let off the hook. Realistically, the only way to prevent women from being seen as sex objects is for them to be seen as other things as well; but to say that women are not sexual beings would be misleading because both men and women are very much sexual (Christensen 1990:42). Similarly, to say that women are singled out in the media is fallacious due to the many examples of media where men are seen catering to the needs of women; something known as chivralic sexism (Christensen 1990:42). Take, for instance, a recent television ad portraying young men groveling at the feet of supermodel Cindy Crawford, almost begging to be the one to cater to her needs. There were no lineups of men aching to announce their displeasure with the sexist ad; and this is precisely why male stereotyping in the media often goes unnoticed. Similarly, it is pornography in the media that is noticed and shunned by anti-pornographic and censorship organizations because it seemingly singles out females for their bodies. It should be well noted, however, that paperback romance novels, which make up an incredible 40% of total paperback sales (Gerbner 1988:15), depicts males as sexual objects, performing what is called Sweet Savagery (rape), just as pornography depicts females as sexual objects. But once again, this goes unnoticed. It is fundamentally important to realize that the media does not deliberately create images of hate or disagreement (Howitt, Cumberbatch 1975:80). They just influence the more appealing things in society (thus directly increasing their ratings). Although it is obvious that pornography is largely a male interest, a noted increase in female interest would certainly cause an increase in the amount of pornographic material geared for women; this relates to the laws of the business world (Christensen 1990:50). Having discussed the untruthfulness of the claims against pornography and showing that pornography is not evil, it is now possible to consider the violence issue. Are men who are exposed to pornography likely to commit violent acts, such as rape against women, more so than men who are not exposed to pornography? It is tempting to believe that media influences males and overstimulates them through pornography to the point that they become aggressive towards females. But this is completely baseless; just as pornography arouses or stimulates, it also satisfies. The American Commission on Obscenity and Pornography performed a study in which several college students were asked to spend one and a half hours in an isolated room with a large volume of pornographic media, as well as a large volume of non-explicit media such as Readers Digest (Howitt, Cumberbatch 1975:80). The study was conducted over a three week period over which time it was discovered that the males involved in the experime nt began to lose interest, or become desensitized to the erotic media nearing the end of the experiment, even if new material was added. To address the argument that males are pushed over the brink into committing rape because of pornography, one may point to the evidence above; to cover the female body would theoretically only increase male sexual desires. Four more separate experiments were conducted of which the above was one. Three other experiments came to the conclusions that pornography does not cause violence against women and reported that the number of sex offenders that had been exposed to pornographic material were smaller in number than the amount of sex-offenders that had not been exposed to pornography (Christensen 1990:130; Harmon, Check 1988:28-30). These results can be offered as evidence against the claim that males become overstimulated and thus dangerous when exposed to pornography. Other experiments conducted in the early 1980s by the Williams Committee in Engl and, reported that as the availability and abundance of sexually explicit material increased, the number of violent sex crimes such as rape did not increase, but in fact decreased in many areas (Christensen 1990:128-129). So what is it about pornography that women and anti-pornography organizations do not like? Violence! One of the greatest myths about pornography is that it contains an excess of violence against women inevitably resulting in real-life violence against women. Anti-pornography groups release propaganda thatthe media approves of violence against women through pornography. Inactuality, however, the total amount of violence in sex-related movies was found to be approximately 6% in a study by T. Palys in the early 1980s in Vancouver, Canada. Even this material was almost entirely composed of verbal threats and spanking (Christensen 1990:59). In addition to the above, studies in Ohio also found that the amount of violence in G-Rated movies was a staggering two times more thanin X-Rated movies. In fact, major films such as Die Hard: With A Vengeance and Terminator 2, contain extreme violence 85-90% of which is directed solely at men. There are, however, exceptions; the slasher genre of movie s contain much more violence towards women, possibly due to the desensitization to violence in other genres of films. Because women are involved, violence against them could create a true sense of horror. However, this does not suggest that men should go into society and rape a woman any more than it suggests that men should goout and kill other men. Horror movie fans choose to watch these movies because they enjoy portrayed violence. Needless to say, no sane individual would wish for this violence to become a real-life conception. Similarly, sex also excites people and because these two elements offer the most thrills in movies, they are often combined. Night By Elie Wiesel (637 words) EssayRealistically, the only way to prevent women from being seen as sex objects is for them to be seen as other things as well; but to say that women are not sexual beings would be misleading because both men and women are very much sexual (Christensen 1990:42). Similarly, to say that women are singled out in the media is fallacious due to the many examples of media where men are seen catering to the needs of women; something known as chivralic sexism (Christensen 1990:42). Take, for instance, a recent television ad portraying young men groveling at the feet of supermodel Cindy Crawford, almost begging to be the one to cater to her needs. There were no lineups of men aching to announce their displeasure with the sexist ad; and this is precisely why male stereotyping in the media often goes unnoticed. Similarly, it is pornography in the media that is noticed and shunned by anti-pornographic and censorship organizations because it seemingly singles out females for their bodies. It should be well noted, however, that paperback romance novels, which make up an incredible 40% of total paperback sales (Gerbner 1988:15), depicts males as sexual objects, performing what is called Sweet Savagery (rape), just as pornography depicts females as sexual objects. But once again, this goes unnoticed. It is fundamentally important to realize that the media does not deliberately create images of hate or disagreement (Howitt, Cumberbatch 1975:80). They just influence the more appealing things in society (thus directly increasing their ratings). Although it is obvious that pornography is largely a male interest, a noted increase in female interest would certainly cause an increase in the amount of pornographic material geared for women; this relates to the laws of the business world (Christensen 1990:50). Having discussed the untruthfulness of the claims against pornography and showing that pornography is not evil, it is now possible to consider the violence issue. Are men who are exposed to pornography likely to commit violent acts, such as rape against women, more so than men who are not exposed to pornography? It is tempting to believe that media influences males and overstimulates them through pornography to the point that they become aggressive towards females. But this is completely baseless; just as pornography arouses or stimulates, it also satisfies. The American Commission on Obscenity and Pornography performed a study in which several college students were asked to spend one and a half hours in an isolated room with a large volume of pornographic media, as well as a large volume of non-explicit media such as Readers Digest (Howitt, Cumberbatch 1975:80). The study was conducted over a three week period over which time it was discovered that the males involved in the experime nt began to lose interest, or become desensitized to the erotic media nearing the end of the experiment, even if new material was added. To address the argument that males are pushed over the brink into committing rape because of pornography, one may point to the evidence above; to cover the female body would theoretically only increase male sexual desires. Four more separate experiments were conducted of which the above was one. Three other experiments came to the conclusions that pornography does not cause violence against women and reported that the number of sex offenders that had been exposed to pornographic material were smaller in number than the amount of sex-offenders that had not been exposed to pornography (Christensen 1990:130; Harmon, Check 1988:28-30). These results can be offered as evidence against the claim that males become overstimulated and thus dangerous when exposed to pornography. Other experiments conducted in the early 1980s by the Williams Committee in Engl and, reported that as the availability and abundance of sexually explicit material increased, the number of violent sex crimes such as rape did not increase, but in fact decreased in many areas (Christensen 1990:128-129). So what is it about pornography that women and anti-pornography organizations do not like? Violence! One of the greatest myths about pornography is that it contains an excess of violence against women inevitably resulting in real-life violence against women. Anti-pornography groups release propaganda thatthe media approves of violence against women through pornography. Inactuality, however, the total amount of violence in sex-related movies was found to be approximately 6% in a study by T. Palys in the early 1980s in Vancouver, Canada. Even this material was almost entirely composed of verbal threats and spanking (Christensen 1990:59). In addition to the above, studies in Ohio also found that the amount of violence in G-Rated movies was a staggering two times more thanin X-Rated movies. In fact, major films such as Die Hard: With A Vengeance and Terminator 2, contain extreme violence 85-90% of which is directed solely at men. There are, however, exceptions; the slasher genre of movie s contain much more violence towards women, possibly due to the desensitization to violence in other genres of films. Because women are involved, violence against them could create a true sense of horror. However, this does not suggest that men should go into society and rape a woman any more than it suggests that men should goout and kill other men. Horror movie fans choose to watch these movies because they enjoy portrayed violence. Needless to say, no sane individual would wish for this violence to become a real-life conception. Similarly, sex also excites people and because these two elements offer the most thrills in movies, they are often combined. It should be pointed out that women, and not just men, also enjoy these thrills based on numerous studies. When discussing pornography, it is scarcely noted that men are not the only ones who enjoy fantasizing about sex. Women also enjoy pondering sex; just not through pornography. In fact, most of these fantasies involve some degree of violence or force and are largely driven by the romance novels discussed earlier (once again supporting the evidence that romance novels prove to be the female equivalent to male-geared pornography). Recent reports published by Nancy Friday, show that the number of female fantasies involving rape far outweigh the number of male fantasies involving rape. What comes as a surprise to many is that in male fantasies, the woman rapes the man and conversely, in female fantasies, the man rapes (Sweet Savagery), the woman! (Christensen 1990:66). Fridays reports also provided some interesting reasoning for the female fantasies. Her reports find that females fan tasize about rape to show that they are not acting in accordance with such sinful actions; to show that sex is being forced upon them. Any other feelings towards the fantasizedrape would prove to be undesirable social behaviour and amazingly, the media is not even involved! Actual laboratory experiments (Hawkins, Zimring 1988:103) have shown that when groups of women were shown erotic scenes involving rape, their reactions to the scenes were as or even more stimulating than less violent consensual lovemaking scenes. This is not to say that all women want to be raped; far from it. This is to say that if women can fantasize about rape but not wish to experience it, then men, too, can fantasize about rape and not wish to commit it. In addition to the many other accusations against pornography, many in society believe that there is definite connection between organized crime and pornography. Although this may be true, the idea is largely over-exaggerated. The reasoning behind this theor y is very simple, yet very shallow. Consider, that pornography is created by organizations and contains sexually explicit material that may be thought to be legally obscene in some areas. To make the connection, these anti-pornography organizations assume that theorganizations (hence organized) that produce the legally obscene (hence crime) material, are operating illegally. It is obvious why pornography is attractive to criminals; just as anything that is banned or is made illegal, there is always someone who will pay the high black-market price for it. Having considered the issues at hand, it can be said that since there is no concrete evidence to support otherwise, pornography in the media does not cause undesirable social behaviour. As mentioned before, sexually explicit movies and magazines do not just arouse, but also satisfy. It is an undisputed fact that feelings of love and happiness cancel out violent feelings (Zillman, Connections Between Sex and Aggression) and to say that pornography endorse violent feelings fails to make sense; if it did, why would men want to be exposed to it. To suggest that pornography causes men to go over the edge and commit rape is as ludicrous as suggesting that pictures of food cause the hungry to steal more food. It has even been said by some women that rape is the fault of women who dress provocatively; they ask for it. According to this logic, in the event that pornography is banned, then an attempt should be made to force women to cover their skin and wear clothing that completely hides the shapes of their bodies so as not to provoke rape. Absurd. As members of society, we recognize the power of the mass media. We understand that public perception can be easily persuaded. But it should be clearly understood that pornography in the media alone cannot persuade men to cause harm to women; it cannot cause men to do things that are socially unacceptable. As was mentioned earlier, pornography only causes feelings of excitement and satisfaction and these feelings overpower those feelings of violence. For these reasons, it can be said that until a positive link can be found between pornography in the media and violence against women, it will remain that sexual violence such as rape is the result of sexual frustration, and not of sexual arousal. Reference CitedChristensen F.M. Pornography. New York: Praeger. 1990Howitt, Cumberpatch. Mass Media, Violence and Society. London: Elek Science. 1975Harmon, Check. Role of Pornography in Woman Abuse. (City unknown). American Commission on Obscenity and Pornography. 1988Hawkins, Zimring. Pornography in a Free Society. (City unknown). (Publisher uknown). 1988Bibliography1. Pornography, Christensen F.M., 1990, New York, Praeger. 2. Mass Media, Violence and Society, Howitt, Cumberpatch, 1975, London, Elek Science. 3. Role of Pornography in Woman Abuse, Harmon, Check, 1988, American Commission on Obscenity and Pornography. 4. Pornography in a Free Society, Hawkins, Zimring, 1988. 5. Advertising, World Book Encyclopedia 1990, New York, Nault. 6. Pornography, Encarta Encyclopedia 1995, New York, Microsoft. 7. The Question of Pornography, Donnerstein, Linz, Penrod, a1987,pp.152-153. 8. Pornography and Censorship, Bullough, 1983, pp.255-261. Miscellaneous

The Enlightenment period in the development of culture

Enlightenment or age of reason refers to the cultural movement associated with the intellectual growth in the eighteenth century. This movement occurred in American colonies and Europe. The main goal of this age was to encourage reforms in the society by embracing the concept of reasoning and acquisition of knowledge through science. This period promoted science and intellectual growth, at the same time, fanaticism and abuses were motivated by the church, as well as the government representatives.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The Enlightenment period in the development of culture specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The Enlightenment period also contributed to the development of art. Philosophers emphasized on learning art besides augmenting the use of music among the middle class. Different forms of art were under development and spanned across among the middle class in such areas of specialization as philosophy, fine art and literature. Another significant concept of enlightenment was the confidence in fostering analytical enquiry to promote happiness and progress. Sprouting about 1650 to 1700, the movement was ignited by philosophers such as John Locke, Pierre Bayle, Baruch Spinonza, Isaac Newton and Voltaire among others. Descartes (1596 -1650) was a renowned French philosopher. He joined Jesuit College at the age of 25. The works of Aristotle and his philosophies motivated him to join college; however, at that time, he became interested in logic and classics. He also acquired mathematic skills through studying books written by Clavius. Mathematics became his favorite subject and played a critical role in shaping his way of thinking. It is no surprise that mathematics laid a basis for his later works. After spending much of his time in Paris, Descartes began travelling around Europe, spending much of his time in Holland, Hungary and Bohemia. Some of his most influential works include; Me ditations on the First Philosophy, Principia Philosophiae, The Principles of Human Knowledge and Of the visible world and the Earth. In one of the discourses, Descarte’s begins with a friendly tone when describing his education. He makes it clear that he was totally discontented with the brilliant but traditional education he has gained. He explains it with the fact that education did not provide solutions which he yearned for the truth. Descartes says â€Å"to be infatuated of a vigorous mind is not enough; the essence is to aptly apply it.. the greatest mind†¦ are open likewise to big aberrations..† This quotation indicates that Descartes has experienced a critical immersion in the gained knowledge and accepted methods of understanding nature, philosophy, and literature; however, he yearns for something greater than this, perhaps what represents an assurance of conviction.Advertising Looking for essay on social sciences? Let's see if we can help you! Get yo ur first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Perhaps, Descartes viewed that traditional disciplines encompassed or confined a person’s mind limiting him his/her own initiative, hence; this constrains the level of thinking and innovation. I support his idea. Besides, because of limits or boundaries always associated with education, such as rigorous curriculum and moderation, Descartes views that this inhibits a person’s creativity. Also, Descartes rejects normal modes of thinking in regard to truth. He illustrates â€Å"Every person is endowed with his/her own knowledge†¦. That there might be †¦.. reformers ahead† By this statement, Descartes embraces a cynical viewpoint on everything he perceives with his senses besides what he has learned. In doing this, Descartes views that the essence of learning is being creative and constructing or coming up with something which is more vigorous and based on one’s ability to think and reason. Thus, I con cur with him. Every person should use his/her creativity to embrace a new revolution. What I find more compelling about Descartes is written in Part IV of his discourse. Descartes challenges his own interpretation. Although he believes that the three things are not prone to create doubt, they complement one another; he does not believe that something has to be there to warrant doubting. This assertion intrigues me. In his discourse, Descartes illustrates a correlation of reconstructing a house from a solid base. He extends this analogy to the idea of needing a temporary residence whereas his own house is being reconstructed. This assertion by Descartes is ambiguous owing to the fact that he is experimenting with ‘radical doubt†. This essay on The Enlightenment period in the development of culture was written and submitted by user Travis Golden to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.